What does masculinity mean in 2026? A sweeping new study suggests the answer may have serious implications for society.
has identified what researchers call the “M factor,” a syndrome categorized by a cluster of attitudes linked to misogyny, male supremacy, violence and opposition to gender equality .
“The M factor reflects an attitude that sees ‘true masculinity’ as under threat. It is associated with notions of male supremacy, a propensity for violence, misogyny, contempt for sexual minorities and opposition to gender equality,” said study leader Denis Ribeaud, a criminologist and sociologist at the Jacobs Center for Productive Youth Development at UZH, according toResearchers from the University of Zurich worked in collaboration with Mencare, the umbrella organization of Swiss men’s and fathers’ groups, to survey more than 6000 people ages 16 to 64 across Switzerland about masculinity, gender roles, sexuality, family life, relationships and experiences with violence.
— a network of influencers, online communities, and social media channels promoting forms of extreme masculinity and male dominance — continues to grow. The study, the first of its kind in Switzerland, found that many of these attitudes are deeply interconnected.
“Our data show that all these views are closely linked and can be traced back to a common underlying attitude. ”Overall, 20% of men surveyed scored high on the M factor scale, putting them at greater risk of problematic or violent behavior. The divide was especially pronounced among young adults, with nearly one in three men ages 18 to 24 falling into the high-scoring category.
Half of those young men said they were concerned that “real men are increasingly being marginalized in society. ” Women, on the other hand, were far more likely to hold views rooted in equality. While researchers found that men’s and women’s attitude became somewhat alike with age, women consistently scored lower on restrictive and dominance-based views of masculinity across all age groups. The study also found strong links between M factor scores and socioeconomic status.
Men with lower levels of education, lower professional status and lower incomes were more likely to score high, while higher education and stronger career prospects were associated with lower scores. Men with high M factor scores were also more likely to view authoritarian parenting and violence in child-rearing as acceptable and to support traditional divisions of labor in relationships, with women handling most caregiving responsibilities while men act as breadwinners. Family background and geography also played a role.
Men whose fathers were born outside Switzerland, particularly in countries with more patriarchal social structures and less established norms of gender equality, were more likely to score higher on the M factor. High scores were also more common in German-speaking regions than in French- or Italian-speaking parts of the country and more prevalent in suburban and rural areas than in cities.
According to the researchers, experiences of exclusion and limited social participation may contribute to these attitudes, with rigid ideas of masculinity serving as a source of identity and self-esteem. The findings extended into intimate relationships. Men with high M factor scores were likely to identify as incels, consume hardcore pornography, use sexual services and report either perpetuating or experiencing intimate partner violence.
“The M factor is a consistent risk factor for intimate partner violence — in terms of perpetrating and experiencing it, and across both sexes: Men and women with high M-factor scores are more likely to report having committed but also experienced violence in their relationships,” said Ribeaud. “This is not contradictory. Those who see male supremacy, contempt for women and controlling behavior as normal are at greater risk of being on both sides of this dynamic.
” The authors of the study said the findings underscore the need for a broader societal discussion about masculinity, beginning in schools. One of the studies strongest recommendations was promoting involved fatherhood. Researchers emphasized the importance of fathers taking an active role in raising children, supporting partners and participating fully in family life.
“Men who are actively involved in day-to-day family life not only have a positive impact on their children’s emotional and social development, but also on their academic success,” said co-author Markus Theunert, co-director of männer.ch. “The key prevention message is that there is not just one ‘right’ form of masculinity,” he explained. “Masculinity is malleable. You can be a boy and become a man in any number of ways. ”
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